David's Literature Review

Learning Styles and Environmental Influences of the Adult Learner

David M. Jones

Ball State University

Literature Review

EDAC 635

Professor: Bo Chang

Abstract

The purpose of this review is to discover the most efficient ways in which to accommodate numerous adult learning styles in various learning environments. All of the research conducted for this assignment is focused on the effects that environments have on learning, and the ways that adults engage learning. This review will serve to provide a blueprint for understanding and developing critical aspects of instruction that will effectively engage students.

Learning Styles and Environmental Influences of the Adult Learner

Adults that are re-entering education has been an ever increasing occurrence over the last half-century. Adult learners are unique, and separate from their younger counterparts in many ways. Adult learners are re-engaging in collegial learning with a goal in mind, and a definitive purpose. The Adult learner is different from younger students in many aspects. The adult learner has a wide array of life experiences from which to draw from. The adult learner is self-motivated, and in many cases, self-directing, and has many preconceived notions about how their learning should take place. In general, the adult learner will not learn in the same fashion as their younger peers. They will not perceive and interpret their learning environments the same way, either. These unique differences pose a curious and urgent barrier to over come in higher education: creating a learning environment that is conducive to effective learning in students of all ages, and developing instructional methods that build on a positive learning environment and reach individuals with a vast array of learning styles. Adult learners, their required learning environment, and effective teaching methods for reaching them have been examined under many microscopes, and a great deal of data has been amassed on the subject of the adult learner’s required learning environment, and effective pedagogical approaches to employ to reach this audience. I have sifted through the expansive collection of research, and carefully selected five articles that best represent the case of the adult learner, and the perfected learning environment.

The solution to the problems facing adult learners is not a simple one. Even though a tremendous amount of research on implementation methods, learning environment, and adult learners has already been conducted, further insight will be gathered from the fields of neuropsychology and pedagogical development to create a synthesis of information with which to fabricate an effective blueprint for facilitators to follow when creating material for, and instilling knowledge to, today’s adult learner.

General Themes

Theme 1: Adult learning, and how it is Impacted by the Environment

The world is an ever-changing, ever-evolving place in the universe. Daily we are inundated with environmental dangers: climate change, disease, famine, shortage of natural resources, and the like. For the first time in 1972, the United Nations organized in Sweden the first ever space for open debate on the environment, the Conference on the Human Environment. It acknowledged that the environment affects people’s well being and that its destruction is harmful to the physical, mental, and social health of humankind (Hemmings, 2005). This acknowledgement brings one issue to the forefront: If we are to effectively facilitate learning in adult students, we must understand, and incorporate the environmental variables present into our proposed learning agendas. As humans, we seek to find shelter, warmth, wealth, progeny, and security, if any of these notions are threatened by specific environmental roadblocks, these issues must be exposed and addressed before learning and engagement can take place.

Further evidence supporting the notion that adult learners are impacted by their learning environment is provided by Walberg’s theory of educational productivity (Walberg, 1969), which holds that there are nine factors which influence students’ cognitive and affective outcomes: his/her age and
motivation, the quality and quantity of instruction, and the psychological climate of the home, the classroom social group, the peer group outside the classroom, and the mass media (Radovan & Makovec, 2015). This research points to the fact that the learning environment exists on two fronts: the psychological, and the physical. From this deduction, we can further surmise that one incarnation of the learning environment will affect change in the other; if a student maintains a positive outlook of the task of learning, and the learning environment in general, a poor physical learning environment could be viewed positively when viewed through the rose-colored glasses of a positive psychological outlook of the activity. These assumptions are bolstered by the research of Hiemstra, which states that
‘A learning environment is all of the physical surroundings, psychological or emotional conditions, and social or cultural influences affecting the growth and development of an adult engaged in an educational enterprise’ (Radovan & Makovic, 2015).

Theme 2: The Attitudes Towards Learning and the Perception of the Learning Environment

It is no mystery that adult learners feel differently about their learning environment, and have differing attitudes towards learning than their collegiate counterparts. This notion serves to place even more importance on the dynamics of the learning environment, the term of which has many meanings and definitions. It is used in different settings and contexts.
Studies dealing with the research of learning environment have explored variables that concentrate on diverse conduct, classroom beliefs, values, their classroom, for instance students personal components of an administration etc.; in short, everything that serves to clarify what is going on in a classroom (Radovan & Makovec, 2015).

A premium is being placed on having the ideal learning environment that serves to be most conducive to adult learners. This data is backed up by the numerous marketing campaigns being sponsored by colleges offering distance education, which allows students to conduct their studies in a learning environment of their choosing, rather than be tethered to the classroom.
While it is generally accepted that powerful learning environments contribute to the development of self-motivation and skills. Knowles (1980) has stressed the importance of learning climate in adult education and educators, who followed him, were well aware of the importance of these features to encourage motivation and learning (Radovan & Makovic, 2015).

In spite of the overwhelming evidence and research proving that the physical learning environment is as, if not more so, important to effective learning than the psychological learning environment, and to this day, most college classrooms have a bleak and institutionalized form that dashes creativity before it begins.

Many adult learners have preconceived notions of how to interpret the college learning environment, and whether these perceptions are false, or accurate, they posses great power over the motivation for learning. Some of the key differences of adult learners is that they are autonomous and self-directed; they have a lot of life experiences and knowledge; they have a more life-, task-, or problem-centered orientation to learning; they are generally motivated to learn due to intrinsic factors (Radovan & Makovec, 2015).

Theme 3: Teaching to the Unique Learning Styles of Adults

Each learner has a unique and specific style of learning. If you have a classroom of fifteen students, chances are that you will have fifteen different learning styles present that require specific criteria to be met in order for effective learning to take place. It has been said that learning does not completely take place in the hearing of information, but when the student ponders the information and organizes it in his/her own way a deeper understanding of the subject matter can be reached. The first step to reaching out to differing learning styles is to be aware they exist. The journal referenced for this theme draws upon the Dunn and Dunn Model, which emerged from cognitive-style theory, brain-lateralization theory, practitioners’ observations and experimental studies.

According to Dunn, Thies, and Honigsfeld, learning style is a biological and developmental set of personal characteristics that make the identical instruction effective for some students and ineffective for others. The Dunns define style as the way individuals begin to concentrate on, process, internalize and retain new and difficult academic information (Honigsfeld & Dunn, 2006).

Honigfeld & Dunn (2006) developed a model of adult learning styles that is composed of twenty-one elements classified into five stimulus strands that describe how students learn effectively based on their personal strengths. These elements are subdivided into five strands that include:

·      Environmental preferences that permit or
inhibit concentration such as Sound versus
quiet, bright versus low Light, warm versus
cool Temperatures, and formal versus Seating designs

·      Emotional characteristics such as Motivation, Persistence, Responsibility [Conformity versus Non-conformity], and the need
for either externally or internally imposed
Structure

·      Sociological determinants, including
Learning Alone, in a Pair, with Peers, as
part of a Team, with either an Authoritative
or Collegial Adult, and/or with Variety as
Their model
opposed to in Patterns and Routines

·      Physiological traits such as Perceptual
lied into live stimulus strands that describe
Strengths, Time of-Day energy levels, a
how students learn most efficiently based on
need for Intake and/or Mobility while learn-their personal strengths.

·      Processing style —Global versus Analytic and Impulsive versus Reflective inclinations

It is important to note though this model contains twenty-one variables, most individuals are affected by only six to fourteen of these data points (Honigsfeld & Dunn, R, 2006). Using this information, educators can develop effective lecture plans that cater to a wide variety of learning styles. Development of such a plan will, in effect, allow the facilitator to instill knowledge to a deeper level across a wider variety of prescribed learning styles, compared to a facilitator using a lesson plan that only specializes in a few learning styles connections.

Theme 4: Shifting the Focus of Content Delivery from Content Based to a Learning Centered Model

Nearly every college student has encountered the traditional approach to learning and instruction. This method, often involves large classrooms packed with students, a professor that reads off the power points and conducts a one-sided lecture that is built only to listen to, and not interact with, and the expectation that all knowledge can be quantified by a students performance on a traditional exam. In reality, the true measure of learning is a more complicated matter.
Research states that if alternate strategies based on different [learning] styles are not provided; many college students are likely to become bored, frustrated, over-whelmed or unable to cope with the challenges of higher education. This may contribute to dropouts leaving college; discontinuing their education; settling for less than they want or are capable of accomplishing; and becoming less assured, confident, and motivated (Honigsfeld & Dunn, R, 2006).

To break down the learning styles further, Honigsfeld & Dunn (2006) proved that despite societal misconceptions concerning males' propensity for variety, women require statistically more instructionally diverse approaches while learning. In addition to the differences preferred by each gender group, college students with higher grade-point averages had significantly different [learning] styles from those with low grade-point averages. High achievers were characterized by essentially analytic characteristics, such as needing to learn in quiet, bright light, on formal seating, either alone or with an authority figure present, with little or no intake, and persistently until task completion. Conversely, as a group, low achievers preferred to learn with music or conversation in the background; soft illumination; on a couch, bed, easy chair or floor; with peers or a collegiate teacher; with food and drinks present; and with frequent breaks.

To learn is to take information that has been presented, make sense of it for ones self, and reorganize the information in a way that makes sense to the individual. In order for this process to be effective and stick with the learner, facilitators must shift their focus from that of strict content delivery, to a delivery style that is based on a learning centered model. This serves to take learners from a place of simply hearing information, to a place of truly understanding the content that has been laid out. There is no test that can quantify this level of understanding; only through involved discussions can the facilitator gain an insight into what knowledge has been learned by the individual. Teachers and students alike are discovering what cognitive research of the past decade has shown; a world of difference exists between rote recall of facts and a deeper understanding of the principles underlying facts and processes (Jungst, Hall, Hall, Licklider, & Wiersema, n.d.).

Theme 5: Using Freudian Concepts to Improve the Scholarship of Teaching

Sigmund Freud was a pioneer of psychoanalytical research and examination. Freud was a proponent of digging deeper into situations in search of hidden meaning. The quotation most often attributed to Freud—“Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar”—underscores his recognition that not all thoughts, feelings, or behavior reveal deeper, hitherto un-elicited, psychological processes. The proviso, however, is that one cannot confidently say that this particular cigar is “just” a cigar without further exploration and analysis (Knight, 2012). Building on this notion, in order for educators to overcome the barriers presented by differing perceptions of the learning environment, they must seek to gain a deeper understanding of the hidden psychology of learning styles.

Implications

The themes presented in this review can, if properly applied, improve teaching effectiveness to levels not previously attained. The first suggestion that I can offer is to consider and educate yourself in the environmental variables that affect the adult learners in your charge. These can range from the world environment to the direct learning environment encountered by the student.  The second suggestion is to understand the different learning styles of your students, and adjust the presentation styles to satisfy these needs. This will ensure that you are able to adequately reach each student. The third suggestion that I would like to propose is to look beyond the norm when contemplating issues related to adult learning. Do not be afraid to question the norm, ask why or why not, or engage your learning audience in an organic, and conversational fashion. These interactions will force you to engage the students on a personal level, and as such, you will gain a deeper insight into their perceptions of learning. The forth suggestion is to engage in conversation directly with each of your students. Engaging in organic, focused conversation can provide great insight into perceptions, and reluctance towards learning. The best way to engage in these conversations is to create a casual environment in which the student feels comfortable. This is often achieved by sitting on a desk to engage conversation as opposed to standing behind the lectern. The fifth and final suggestion is to create an environment in which the student and teacher are perceived as equal. The notion that students exist on a level below teachers serves as a great barrier to effective learning and instruction.

Reflection

Highlights

My research yielded a great deal of information in regards to adult learning and the perception of the learning environment, but the concepts that stood out from the rest were those related to shifting instruction from a content centered approach to one that is more learning-centered, and the use of psychoanalytical research and techniques to design lecture material and delivery methods that cater to the adult learner in various learning styles.

Process

I completed this assignment using BSU’s online library resource to locate journal articles that directly apply to my topic of focus: adult learning and learning environments. I used Mendeley software, which is free to all college students, to organize, highlight, review, and cite all of the articles that I chose for this review. This program cut the time spent organizing my research in half, and made the process much more enjoyable!

Tables

Table 1. Summary of the literature review 


The Main Themes in the Literature	Application of Main Themes in Practice
Theme 1: Adult learning, and how it is Impacted by the Environment	Understand the environmental variables facing your students
Theme 2: The Attitudes Towards Learning and the Perception of the Learning Environment	Understand the perception of learning that your students employ, and work to move them in a positive direction
Theme 3: Teaching to the Unique Learning Styles of Adults	Gain an in-depth understanding of the different adult learning styles
Theme 4: Shifting the Focus of Content Delivery from Content Based to a Learning Centered Model	Make learning the focus of instruction, rather than telling the students what they should know
Theme 5: Using Freudian Concepts to Improve the Scholarship of Teaching	Dare to question the norms, and come up with your own methods of facilitation

References

Hemmings, J. (2005). Do the write thing. Embroidery, 56(MAY.), 16–18. http://doi.org/10.1002/ace

Honigsfeld, a, & Dunn, R. (2006). Learning-style characteristics of adult learners. Delta Kappa ….

Jungst, S. E., Hall, B., Hall, N. B. L., Licklider, B. L., & Wiersema, J. A. (n.d.). Centered Paradigm in Their Higher Education Classrooms.

Knight, M. (2012). The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. Business Communication Quarterly, 75(3), 235–236. http://doi.org/10.1177/1080569912458079

Radovan, M., & Makovec, D. (2015). Adult Learners’ Learning Environment Perceptions and Satisfaction in Formal Education—Case Study of Four East-European Countries. International Education Studies, 8(2), 101–112. http://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n2p101